Blended Learning in African Higher Education Language Classrooms: An Evidence Synthesis

Blended learning has become an important instructional approach in higher education; however, evidence regarding its application in African higher education language classrooms remains fragmented and has not been comprehensively synthesised. This systematic review examined empirical evidence on blended learning in African higher education, with particular emphasis on English language teaching and learning, through the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework. Guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020), literature was systematically retrieved from major international databases and regional sources using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Eligible studies were critically appraised and synthesised through thematic narrative analysis. The review identified a growing but limited body of evidence from Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, and South Africa employing qualitative, quantitative, mixed-methods, and quasi-experimental designs. Overall, blended learning was consistently associated with improved learner engagement, communicative competence, academic performance, collaborative learning, and learner autonomy. Teaching presence emerged as the most influential factor supporting successful implementation, while social and cognitive presence were strengthened through structured interaction, collaborative learning activities, and technology-supported instruction. Nevertheless, persistent barriers including unreliable internet connectivity, inadequate digital infrastructure, limited institutional support, and insufficient professional development—continue to constrain effective implementation across many African universities. The review further reveals that although African studies report educational outcomes comparable with international findings, few explicitly apply or measure the Community of Inquiry constructs using validated instruments. Consequently, interpretations of teaching, social, and cognitive presence remain largely inferential. The review concludes that blended learning offers significant potential to strengthen language education in African higher education when supported by context-sensitive instructional design, institutional investment, and coherent educational policy. Future research should adopt longitudinal, multi-country, and theory-driven approaches that explicitly examine Community of Inquiry constructs within African educational contexts.