Colour Term Variation as an Indicator of Language Shift: Comparing Younger and Older Speakers of Safwa, Malila, Ndali, and Hehe

This study investigated language shift in four indigenous Bantu languages of Tanzania: Safwa, Malila, Ndali, and Hehe. Language shift occurs when speakers gradually abandon their ancestral language in favour of another. One early indicator is increased borrowing among younger speakers, while older speakers retain indigenous vocabulary. In Tanzania, Swahili functions as the dominant national language. The study had two objectives: to compare colour terms used by older speakers (50 years and above) and younger speakers (18–35 years), and to determine whether younger speakers use more borrowed Swahili colour terms, signalling ongoing language shift. A qualitative approach with a descriptive comparative design was employed. Data were collected from 30 native speakers, comprising 15 older and 15 younger participants, through interviews and a colour chart. Content analysis was used to compare colour terminology across age groups. Findings revealed clear evidence of language shift in Safwa and Malila. Younger Safwa speakers used Swahili terms such as buluu for blue and kijivu for grey instead of indigenous imwanya and nkumbila. Younger Malila speakers similarly replaced invutu and insungwe with Swahili equivalents. Ndali and Hehe showed limited age-based variation because older speakers already used many borrowed forms, suggesting earlier shift. Across all languages, black, white, and red resisted borrowing, whereas blue, grey, and green were more vulnerable. The study concludes that language shift is active in Safwa and Malila and more advanced in Ndali and Hehe, contributing to documentation and preservation efforts. Findings highlight urgent need for community-based strategies supporting indigenous language maintenance and revitalisation.