Design and Evaluation of Vaccines for East Coast Fever: Current Strategies and Emerging Technologies

Background: East Coast fever (ECF), caused by the protozoan parasite Theileria parva and transmitted by Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks, remains a primary constraint on cattle productivity across sub-Saharan Africa. The disease results in mortality rates exceeding 90% in susceptible populations, with substantial economic implications for pastoral and agropastoral communities. Methods and current approaches: This review examines vaccine development strategies including live attenuated vaccines (infection-and-treatment method), subunit and recombinant vaccines, anti-tick immunization approaches, and emerging biotechnologies such as mRNA-based platforms and computational vaccinomics. Published literature through 2024 was systematically evaluated to assess efficacy, safety, and implementation barriers. Results: The infection-and-treatment method remains the benchmark vaccine, providing durable immunity comparable to natural infection. However, subunit vaccines targeting the p67 surface antigen show promise, particularly when combined with advanced adjuvants and delivery systems. Anti-tick vaccines and integrated multi-modal approaches demonstrate synergistic benefits that may enhance epidemiological control. Conclusions: Sustainable ECF control will require an integrated vaccination strategy combining conventional approaches with novel biotechnologies. Future vaccine development should prioritise accessible and affordable formulations for smallholder farmers while addressing antigenic diversity and logistical constraints. Keywords: East Coast fever, Theileria parva, vaccine development, immunisation strategies, tick-borne diseases, livestock health, sub-Saharan Africa