Ensemble Machine Learning for Malaria Diagnosis in Resource-Limited Settings Using Clinical and Demographic Features

Abstract Background Sub-Saharan Africa continues to shoulder the heaviest burden of malaria. The 2024 WHO malaria report highlighted that Africa contributed an alarming 94% of the global cases and 95% of the deaths. In the WHO African region, progress towards elimination and management of malaria is hindered by weak health systems, and lack of traditional diagnostic methods such as microscopy and malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDT). The primary aim of the study is to develop a machine learning (ML) ensemble model for malaria diagnosis using clinical and demographic data, tailored for resource-limited settings. Methods A retrospective study was conducted using 637 patient records from Gutu Mission Hospital and Gweru Provincial Hospital in Zimbabwe. Clinical symptoms (fever, chills, abdominal pain, headache and diarrhea) and demographic features (age, gender, residence and travel history) were analysed. Data preprocessing included handling class imbalance using Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique (SMOTE) and feature selection using Recursive feature elimination (RFE). Seven individual ML models including Logistic regression (LR), Random Forest (RF), Decision Trees (DT), Gradient Boosting (GB), K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Naive Bayes (NB) and XGBoost were trained and evaluated on the malaria dataset. The individual models were further combined to build, train and evaluate ensemble models such as Bagging, Stacking, Soft Voting and AdaBoost. Model performance was assessed using accuracy, precision, confusion matrices, recall and F1score and AUR-ROC metrics. Results Clinical symptoms (chills: p=0.001, fever: p=0.003, diarrhoea: p=0.01, abdominal pain: p<0.001) were statistically significant predictors of malaria. Of the demographic factors, only travel history (p=0.02) showed significant association with malaria. Among the seven individual ML models, GB achieved the highest predictive performance (Accuracy = 0.94), followed by RF (Accuracy = 0.94%) and XGBoost (Accuracy = 0.93%). The stacking ensemble model outperformed all individual ML models and other ensemble models (bagging, soft voting and adaBoost) achieving accuracy = 0.96, precision = 0.95, recall = 0.98, F1 score= 0.96 and AUC-ROC = 0.98. Conclusion This study demonstrates that ML particularly ensemble models can be used to significantly improve malaria diagnosis. The integration of these models into a web-based application could provide a scalable and accessible diagnostic tool for healthcare workers in resource limited settings.