Xhosa/isiXhosa speech development

Abstract isiXhosa is spoken in South Africa, and there are several varieties including Mpondo, Hlubi, and Bhaca. isiXhosa is characterized by five vowels and 52 consonants. Sixteen clicks are derived from three basic clicks (dental, alveolar, and palatal) using a nonpulmonic airstream. isiXhosa is a tonal language with high and low surface tones used to differentiate between words. The orthography is transparent and consistent, but its conjunctive characteristics and complex graphemes make spelling a challenge. Acquisition of consonants (including clicks) and vowels is largely completed by the age of 4;0. Only a few consonants are mastered later, and they almost certainly include some clicks and affricates (although this is debated). To date researchers have focused on describing the typical development of children acquiring isiXhosa, and there is minimal research on children with speech sound disorders in this language.