Assessing antimicrobial resistance, utilization and stewardship in Yemen: An exploratory mixed-methods study

Abstract Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), largely driven by irrational use of antimicrobials, is a global, multi-faceted problem calling for a complete understanding of all contributory factors for effective containment. In conflict settings, war-wounds and malnutrition can combine with existing social determinants to increase demand for antibiotics, compounding irrational use. In this study, we focus on Yemen, a low-income country with active conflict for the last five years, and analyze the current status of awareness and stewardship efforts regarding AMR. We performed a survey of prescribers/physicians and pharmacists to describe perceptions of AMR prevalence, antibiotic use practices and stewardship in Yemen, supported by a non-systematic scoping literature review and a key informant interview. Participants (96%, n=57) reported a perceived high AMR prevalence rate. Prescribers (74%, 20/27) reported pressure to prescribe broad-spectrum antibiotics. In the majority of cases (81%, 22/27), Antimicrobial Sensitivity Tests (AST) were not performed to inform antibiotic choice. The main barrier to AST was cost. Most pharmacists (67%, 18/27) sold antibiotics without prescriptions. Amoxicillin (including amoxicillin-clavulanate) was the most-commonly prescribed (63%, 17/27) or dispensed (82%, 22/27) antibiotic. AST was rated the least important solution to AMR in Yemen. While there was awareness of a high AMR rate, stewardship is poor in Yemen. We note that barriers to the use of AST could be addressed through the deployment of low-cost AST kits. Compulsory continuing education emphasizing the use of AST to guide prescribing and patients’ awareness programs could help avoid irrational use.