Determinants of structural housing quality in Somaliland: a multilevel mixed-effects analysis of national survey data

Background In Somaliland, a region characterized by post-conflict recovery and rapid urbanization, a significant qualitative housing gap persists despite international mandates like Sustainable Development Goal 11. However, little empirical research has investigated the hierarchical factors shaping structural housing quality in this specific context. Methods This study used multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression to identify determinants of structural housing quality, by analyzing 6,074 households from the 2020 Somaliland Demographic and Health Survey. Quality was defined by the durability of floor, wall, and roof materials, while predictors included household socioeconomic factors and community-level geographic variables. Results Overall, 24.1% of households resided in improved housing, while 75.9% lived in unimproved housing. Household wealth was the strongest determinant of structural housing quality. Compared with households in the lowest wealth category, those in the middle (AOR = 26.61, 95% CI: 18.76–37.75), high (AOR = 95.72, 95% CI: 64.31–142.48), and very high wealth categories (AOR = 298.19, 95% CI: 191.29–464.84) had significantly greater odds of residing in improved housing. Households without livestock ownership were more likely to have improved housing (AOR = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.13–1.70). Significant regional disparities were observed, with households in Maroodi-jeex, Sahil, and Togdheer having lower odds of improved housing compared with those in Awdal. Rural households were significantly less likely to reside in improved housing than urban households. Conclusion Structural housing quality remains low in Somaliland and is strongly associated with household wealth, geographic location, place of residence, electricity access, and livelihood characteristics. The findings highlight persistent socioeconomic and regional inequalities in housing conditions and underscore the need for targeted housing, infrastructure, and rural development interventions to support equitable progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 11.