Evaluating the Environmental Footprint of Emergency WASH Programming and Eco-Innovation in Conflict-Affected Settings: A Case of Cabo Delgado, Northern Mozambique

Abstract This study examines the environmental impacts of emergency Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) interventions in conflict-affected settings and explores how eco-innovative practices can improve the environmental sustainability of humanitarian responses in Cabo Delgado Province, Northern Mozambique. Emergency WASH programmes are critical for preventing disease outbreaks and ensuring access to safe water and sanitation during humanitarian crises. However, these interventions are often implemented under urgent timelines with limited environmental assessment, which can unintentionally contribute to ecological degradation, including groundwater depletion, sanitation-related contamination, deforestation, and plastic waste accumulation in displacement settings. The study employed a qualitative case study approach grounded in resilience thinking and political ecology frameworks. Data were collected through key informant interviews, focus group discussions, field observations, and document analysis across five districts in Cabo Delgado: Pemba, Metuge, Montepuez, Mocímboa da Praia, and Quissanga. A purposive sample of humanitarian practitioners, government officials, and internally displaced community members was selected to provide context-specific insights into WASH implementation practices and environmental outcomes. Findings indicate that emergency WASH interventions significantly improved access to safe water and sanitation services but also generated unintended environmental pressures. Intensive borehole drilling contributed to declining groundwater yields; poorly sited sanitation facilities increased the risk of soil and groundwater contamination; and plastic-based hygiene kits contributed to waste accumulation in internally displaced persons (IDP) settlements. Operational factors such as compressed donor timelines, limited environmental screening, and weak coordination with local authorities further amplified these impacts. The study concludes that environmental sustainability should be integrated into humanitarian WASH programming. Strengthening environmental screening, incorporating ecological indicators into monitoring systems, and promoting eco-innovative technologies such as solar-powered water systems and reusable hygiene materials can help balance life-saving humanitarian objectives with long-term environmental resilience. Keywords Emergency WASH, environmental sustainability, eco-innovation, humanitarian response, conflict-affected settings, Cabo Delgado.