Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and Women’s Labor Market Outcomes: Causal Evidence From Kenya

Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) affects more than 230 million women globally and persists across sub-Saharan Africa despite decades of legal prohibition. This study provides causal evidence on the labor market consequences of FGM/C for women in Kenya. It matches primary survey data from 454 women across eight counties to the 2022 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, complemented by twenty-eight key informant interviews and eight focus group discussions. Instrumental variable estimates, using ethnic proximity to historical FGM/C strongholds interacted with urbanization, indicate that FGM/C reduces labor force participation by 46.8 percentage points among compliers, lowers the log-odds of high economic empowerment by 1.443, and diminishes career progression by 1.644 standard deviations; income effects are negative but imprecise. Qualitative evidence identifies chronic health complications, stigma, and an FGM/C-to-early-marriage pipeline as principal channels. Anti-FGM/C policy exposure shows no measurable moderating effect, indicating that legal prohibition without economic reintegration fails survivors.