Formal Manual Fecal Sludge Emptying and Transport Services: Cost Analysis of 23 Service Providers in Malawi and Uganda

In East and Southern African cities, pit latrines are the most common household sanitation system and often require manual emptying. City authorities in the region have begun to formalize service providers, and, along with service providers, require cost data and analysis to optimize service delivery and reduce costs to minimize public funding contributions toward a large funding gap. We analyzed financial and operational data from 23 formal service providers and 260 households in Malawi and Uganda. Total Annualized Cost per Household (TACH) was calculated to understand unit costs and cost structures, and scenario modeling was used to analyze cost drivers. Manual emptying is higher TACH than mechanical emptying at full capacity utilization because of higher labor costs. TACH varies between households due to different annualized sludge emptying rates. Service providers report operating below full capacity, increasing TACH and not justifying vehicle ownership over rental. Households prefer low-volume and low-price emptying to manage budgets, but this increases TACH unless service providers coordinate to maximize capacity. Options are discussed for city authorities and service providers to minimize TACH and improve vertical equity between emptying methods and horizontal equity between households, including replacing direct user-payments with frequently collected citywide payments and managed emptying services.