Fostering inclusive learning through serious gaming to enhance sustainable irrigation investments along sand rivers in Zimbabwe and Kenya

ABSTRACT Smallholder farmers across sub-Saharan Africa increasingly invest in small-scale irrigation to improve agricultural productivity and enhance livelihoods. Unlike conventional top-down irrigation development, these investments are typically incremental and adaptive, reflecting changing environmental and socio-economic conditions. However, limited empirical evidence exists on how farmers make irrigation investment decisions in practice, particularly in sand river systems where groundwater stored in sandy riverbeds provides a critical seasonal water source. This study presents the Sand River Game, a board-based serious game designed to simulate irrigation investment decision-making and facilitate dialogue on irrigation development pathways. The game was tested with irrigating farmers along the Tuli River in Zimbabwe and the Enguli River in Kenya, two contexts where farmer-led irrigation development is expanding. Gameplay revealed diverse irrigation investment pathways shaped by contextual factors such as access to credit, market opportunities, and perceptions of risk. Farmers experimented with irrigation technologies, crop choices, and risk-management strategies. Post-game reflections highlighted trade-offs related to energy costs, water availability, and collective marketing. The findings demonstrate how serious gaming can support experiential learning and dialogue around irrigation investment decisions and provide a practical tool for grounding the concept of Adaptive Investment Pathways in smallholder irrigation development along sand rivers.