Gender-based production and income gaps: Empirical evidence from oil palm farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria

Abstract Background Oil palm is a productive and profitable tropical crop that produces palm oil. Oil palm and its products have economic potential to improve farmers' incomes and livelihoods. Empirical data on current oil palm fruit output, palm oil production, and income along the gender line are scarce. Hence, this study provides an empirical overview of production quantity and income among oil palm farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria. Methods Quantitative data were collected using a questionnaire from 180 oil palm farmers randomly sampled across oil palm-producing local government areas (3) and communities (6). Quantities of oil palm fruits and palm oil produced were collected for the years 2024 (January-December) and 2025 (January-October). Data were analysed using means, frequencies, percentages and t-tests. More males than females engaged in oil palm production, and not all oil palm farmers produce palm oil, whether male or female. Results The quantity of oil palm fruits harvested ranges from 360 to 8200 bunches in 2024 and the same in 2025. The average quantity of oil palm fruits harvested in 2024 and 2025 was 2,692.33 ± 1,694.98 and 2,624.00 ± 1,658.84 bunches, respectively. The average quantity of palm oil produced in 2024 and 2025 was 3,767.98 ± 1,904.00 and 3,113.10 ± 1,489.51 litres, respectively. The t-test analysis shows no significant difference in oil palm production between males and females for both years. Males significantly produced more palm oil than females in 2024 and 2025. Females significantly realised more income from the sales of oil palm fruits than males in 2024. In 2025, there was no significant difference in sales of oil palm fruit between males and females. Income from palm oil sold in 2024 did not significantly differ between males and females. But males significantly realised more income from palm oil sales than females in 2025. Conclusions Though more males than females engaged in oil palm production, oil palm production cannot be said to be gender-specific. Both genders produced oil palm fruits and processed these fruits into palm oil for public consumption. Interventions targeted at oil palm farmers should favour both genders. More importantly, women and youth should be encouraged to go into oil palm farming.