Global spatiotemporal patterns of bovine mastitis pathogens from 2000 to 2025: a meta-analysis for precision dairy health

Abstract Background Bovine mastitis is the most prevalent and economically damaging disease affecting dairy production worldwide. The disease can reduce milk yield and quality, shorten productive herd life, and compromise animal welfare and farm profitability. Although the spectra of responsible pathogens vary widely across regions, climates, and farming systems, long-term global spatiotemporal data that could guide mastitis resistance breeding and precision nutritional strategies remain limited. This meta-analysis aimed to characterize the spatiotemporal dynamics of bovine mastitis pathogens and to evaluate their associations with geography, climate, cattle breed, and husbandry systems. Results A total of 137 studies published between 2000 and 2025 were included, covering 37 countries and 208,510 dairy cows. The pooled prevalence estimates and 95% confidence intervals for the five dominant pathogens were as follows: Staphylococcus aureus, 19.59% (95% CI: 17.00%–22.47%); Streptococcus spp., 17.29% (95% CI: 15.14%–19.66%); Escherichia coli, 13.86% (95% CI: 11.22%–17.00%); Coagulase-negative staphylococci, 15.49% (95% CI: 10.12%–22.99%); and Klebsiella spp., 9.92% (95% CI: 7.38%–13.20%). Overall, the pathogen spectrum clearly changed temporally over the 25-year period, with Klebsiella spp. exhibiting the most pronounced upward signal. Subgroup analyses suggested pathogen-specific variability across geographies and climates. The highest prevalence of S. aureus was observed in plateau climates and Africa. At the continent level, Streptococcus spp. were more prevalent in Europe and Asia, whereas climactically, they were more prevalent in plateau and tropical climates. Coagulase-negative staphylococci had the highest continental prevalence in Europe, while climate-specific estimates of its prevalence were relatively high in tropical and subtropical zones. Conclusions This study provides long-term global evidence of the substantial temporal and geographic variability of the patterns of various bovine mastitis pathogens, including pathogen-specific evidence for geographic and climatic differences. These spatiotemporal patterns provide important etiological evidence for the targeted genetic improvement of mastitis resistance and pathogen-specific nutritional interventions. These findings provide essential etiological evidence for integrating multidisciplinary technologies including animal breeding, animal nutrition and farm health management to improve bovine mammary health, raise production efficiency and advance the sustainable development of dairy farming.