Predicted DHS indicators at 1x1 km for Senegal.

For each indicator, the best performing method was used, that is, thin plate splines (Fula ethnicity, ITN ownership, ITN access), random forest (stunting, anemia, sanitation, wealth index) and Bayesian models (literacy, ITN ownership for 2, IRS). ‘Out of range’ indicates predicted values that are outside the possible range of values of the indicator (below 0 or above 1 for proportions). National boundaries were downloaded from GADM. Abbreviations: TPS (thin plate spline), RF (random forest), BM (Bayesian model), ITN (insecticide-treated net), IRS (indoor residual spraying).