R&D Expenditure and Research Outcomes in Africa: A Systematic Review

Research and development (R&D) expenditure is widely regarded as a key driver of innovation, economic growth, and scientific advancement. Despite the African Union's Lagos Plan of Action and subsequent commitments — including the target of allocating at least 1% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to R&D — most African countries continue to invest well below this benchmark. Empirical evidence on how R&D expenditure translates into measurable research outcomes, such as scientific publications, patents, citations, and innovation output, remains fragmented across disciplines including economics, science policy, bibliometrics, and development studies. This fragmentation makes it difficult for policymakers, funders, and researchers to draw robust, continent-wide conclusions about the returns to R&D investment in Africa. A systematic review is therefore needed to consolidate the dispersed evidence base, critically appraise the methodological quality of existing studies, identify moderating and contextual factors, and surface priority gaps to guide future research and R&D policy on the continent.