Spatial Patterns and Socioeconomic Inequalities in Water Energy Food Access in Malawi

Abstract Household access to water, energy, and food (WEF) in Malawi remains uneven, and sector-by-sector analysis can miss overlapping deprivations. This study assesses combined WEF access and examines how socioeconomic and spatial inequalities structure these outcomes using Malawi IHS5 2019–2020 data. A household WEF Access Index (0–3) was constructed from improved water, electricity/modern energy, and food access indicators. Inequality was measured using the Gini coefficient and rich–poor ratios, while spatial dependence was analysed using Spatial Autoregressive (SAR) and Spatial Error Model (SEM) specifications and compared with Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). The study found that national mean WEF access was moderate (1.66/3), with high improved water access (96.5%) but low electricity access (11.0%) and modern cooking fuel use (19.6%). Energy services showed the greatest inequality, particularly electricity access (Gini = 0.890; rich–poor ratio 74:1). Formal spatial econometric results showed significant SAR spatial dependence for the composite WEF Access Index and electricity access, while SEM spatial error terms were not statistically significant. Wealth remained the dominant socioeconomic driver of access, urban districts had higher WEF outcomes, and Central and Southern regions remained disadvantaged relative to the Northern Region. These findings show that WEF access in Malawi is shaped by intersecting socioeconomic inequalities, regional disadvantage, and neighbouring-district spatial patterns, stressing the need for integrated district-level interventions that combine rural energy expansion, food-security support, and infrastructure planning.