Supplementary material from "Congo basin peatlands as coupled human–natural systems: a multidisciplinary data framework for vulnerability and resilience assessment"

Peatlands in the Congo Basin are not only critical ecological assets for carbon storage, hydrological regulation, and biodiversity conservation; they are also deeply embedded in social, cultural and governance systems. Their sustainability therefore depends on their recognition as complex social–ecological systems, shaped by long-standing interactions between communities, customary institutions and natural processes. Yet, despite growing scientific attention, the vulnerability and resilience dynamics of these systems remain insufficiently understood. This study applies a multidisciplinary, system-based framework across seven peatland sites, including one peatland mangrove site in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to analyse peatland dynamics through interacting dimensions of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Using mixed methods: household surveys (n = 350), floristic inventories, satellite-based hydrological analysis and the human–animal–environment analysis, we integrate evidence across hydrological, ecological, socio-economic, governance and health domains. The results show strong spatial heterogeneity in peatland integrity (water supply, vegetation composition and socio-economic activities) and human dependence, indicating that management strategies cannot be uniform across scales. Species-rich peat swamp forests of the Cuvette Centrale reveal greater functional redundancy and resilience than low-diversity coastal mangrove peatlands. High livelihood dependence, low educational attainment, weak infrastructure and limited economic alternatives increase social vulnerability to environmental change. Peatlands also emerge as critical human–wildlife interfaces, where intensive hunting and bushmeat trade elevate zoonotic disease risks. Overall, the Congo Basin peatlands function as complex coupled human–natural systems characterized by non-linear feedback and threshold behaviours. Sustainable management therefore requires preventive, integrated interventions that protect hydrological integrity, conserve biodiversity, strengthen livelihoods, align customary and statutory governance, and address health risks under accelerating climate and land-use change.