Ecological sustainability at the crossroads: Unscrambling environmental contamination and livestock co-existence in Sodom-Agbogbloshie's e-waste landscape

Little is known about the complex interactions between e-waste recycling and livestock activities in ’Sodom-Agbogbloshie’, Ghana, one of the world's largest e-waste processing complexes. We examined soil, air, and livestock milk samples across different functional zones of the e-waste scrapyard to assess contamination patterns and their implications for ecological and human health. Analysis revealed severe heavy metal contamination with soil concentrations in burning areas reaching 17.6 g Cu kg−1 and 6.6 g Pb kg−1, far exceeding FAO thresholds. Air quality measurements demonstrated significant temporal variations, with PM2.5 levels in herding areas reaching 496 µg m-³ , 33 times above WHO guidelines. Livestock milk analysis showed significant heavy metal contaminations, with 41 mg Zn L−1 in cattle, 44 mg L−1, in goats, and 28 mg L−1 in sheep exceeding WHO/FAO thresholds. Dioxins (PCDD/F) and PCB concentrations in milk from burning areas reached 32 pg WHO-TEQ g−1 fat, substantially exceeding global safety standards. This indicates severe risks of contamination transfer through the food chain particularly for children, with hazard indices 8.3 times higher than for adults. The study highlights the urgent need for integrated intervention strategies addressing income opportunities, personal and public health concerns, and environmental contamination in this unique landscape with amalgamating urban and rural characteristics.